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Sino-Roman relations
Sino-Roman relations were essentially indirect throughout the existence of both empires. The Roman Empire and the ancient Han dynasty progressively inched closer in the course of the Roman expansion into the Ancient Near East and simultaneous Chinese military incursions into Central Asia. However, powerful intermediate empires such as the Parthians and Kushans kept the two Eurasian flanking powers permanently apart and mutual awareness remained low and knowledge fuzzy.
Only a few attempts at direct contact are known from records: In 97 BCE, the Chinese general Ban Chao unsuccessfully tried to send an envoy to Rome.〔Hill (2009), p. 5.〕〔Pulleyblank (1999), p. 77f.〕 Several alleged Roman emissaries to China were recorded by ancient Chinese historians. The first one on record, supposedly from either the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius or the later emperor Marcus Aurelius, arrived in 166 CE.〔Hill (2009), p. 27.〕〔Pulleyblank (1999), p. 78〕
The indirect exchange of goods on the land (the so-called silk road) and sea routes included Chinese silk and Roman glassware and high-quality cloth.〔J. Thorley: "The Silk Trade between China and the Roman Empire at Its Height, 'Circa' A. D. 90-130", ''Greece & Rome'',Vol. 18, No. 1 (1971), pp. 71-80〕
In classical sources, the problem of identifying references to ancient China is exacerbated by the interpretation of the Latin term "Seres," whose meaning fluctuated and could refer to a number of Asian people in a wide arc from India over Central Asia to China.〔Schoff (1915), p. 237〕 In Chinese records, the Roman Empire came to be known as "Da Qin", Great Qin, apparently thought to be a sort of counter-China at the other end of the world.〔Pulleyblank (1999), p. 71〕 According to Edwin G. Pulleyblank, the "point that needs to be stressed is that the Chinese conception of Da Qin was confused from the outset with ancient mythological notions about the far west".〔
== Embassies and travels ==
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